Norepinephrine (also called noradrenalin) is the neurotransmitter at the post-ganglionic sympathetic nervous system allergy treatment services order clarinex 5 mg line, and is also found in the brain allergy shots pain order 5mg clarinex visa. Decreased norepinephrine and/or serotonin activity in the brain are thought to contribute to depression. Most drugs used to treat depression increase the release of norepinephrine, serotonin, or both. Other amino acid neurotransmitters include glutamate (the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain), glycine, and aspartate. The peptide neurotransmitters include the "endorphins," or "endogenous morphine-like substances. In 1973, such receptors were found, which led to the further discovery of naturally occurring neurotransmitters with opiate-like properties, which induce analgesia and euphoria. Other examples of peptide neurotransmitters include substance P (involved in pain perception), oxytocin (responsible for labor pains), and cholecystokinin (involved in hunger satiety). In addition to the categories of neurotransmitters discussed, there is a newly discovered group of neurotrans- mitters that appear to break all the "rules" governing the actions of neurotransmitters. These are soluble gases that are made in all parts of neurons, are released as soon as they are manufactured, and do not affect postsynaptic receptors. Nitric oxide is apparently involved in such disparate functions as penile erection, dilation of blood vessels in areas of the brain that are metabolically active, and learning. Commercially, nicotine is extracted from dried Nicotiana tabacum leaves and used for making insecticides (nicotine sulfate) or tobacco products (Benowitz, 1998). Nicotine is extremely poisonous and can cause respiratory failure, convulsions, nervous system paralysis, and death if consumed in a single dose of 50 mg or more. Nicotine is typically found in tobacco products such as cigarettes, cigars, snuff, chew, and pipes as well as in insecticides such as Black Leaf (40 percent nicotine sulfate; Benowitz, 1998). However, when smoked, a single cigarette delivers approximately 1 to 3 mg of nicotine, as well as 4,000 other chemicals, to the nose, mouth, and primarily to the lungs, where nicotine is quickly assimilated through cell membranes into the pulmonary capillary blood flow (Grunberg, 1999). Nicotine affects the mesolimbic system, or the pleasure center of the brain, creating increased levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter essential to the functioning of the central nervous system and emotion regulation (Brauthar, 1995; Pich, Pagliusi, & Tessari, 1997). An increase of dopamine elicits feelings of euphoria and has been linked to the addictive process. Nicotine also elicits pleasurable feelings such as relaxation, stimulation, and increased attention, reinforcing continued use (Corrigall, Franklin, Coen, & Clarke, 1992; Hurt & Robertson, 1998; Ovid & Pomerleau, 1992). Nicotine stimulates the division of small cell carcinomas, a cancer cell line, by several hundred percent. Additionally, women who smoke during pregnancy have an increased risk of spontaneous abortion, preterm birth rates, low birth weights, and fetal or infant death (DiFranza & Lew, 1995; Slotkin, 1998). With the variety of smoking-cessation treatments available, a primary physician can best assist individuals to tailor treatments to effectively meet their needs (Ward, Klesges, & Halpern, 1997). The natural history of cigarette smoking from adolescence to adulthood: Demographic predictors of continuity and change. Reasons for tobacco use and symptoms of nicotine withdrawal among adolescent and young adult tobacco users-United States, 1993. The mesolimbic dopaminergic system is implicated in the reinforcing effects of nicotine. Effect of maternal cigarette smoking on pregnancy complications and sudden infant death syndrome. Mortality from tobacco in developed countries: Indirect estimation from national vital statistics. The impact of fetal nicotine exposure on nervous system development and its role in sudden infant death syndrome. Generally, the sufferer quickly becomes alert after awakening and readily recalls the details of the dream. Nightmares are a universal human experience and have engendered much literary attention but only limited empirical research. One aspect of dreams and nightmares that make them difficult to study is the fact that they cannot be directly observed. Dreams can only be recalled following awakening, and the fidelity of recall is not known. For example, it is possible that dream recall is limited to dream events occurring in the period immediately prior to arousal.
Prairie voles are a monogamous species of rodent and have been extensively studied as a model for understanding the neural basis of monogamy allergy dizziness discount clarinex 5 mg line. In the prairie vole allergy forecast iowa purchase clarinex 5 mg visa, oxytocin plays a role in formation of the bond of the female for the male. Infusion of oxytocin into the brain of a female prairie vole even in the absence of mating results in the formation of a pair bond. For example, experiments examining the effects of central oxytocin on social interaction in rodents have shown that oxytocin increases the time spent in physical contact with other individuals. There is speculation that central oxytocin may underlie the reinforcing nature of positive social interactions. Sex in humans may play a role in strengthening the emotional attachments between partners, and vaginocervical stimulation, nipple stimulation, and orgasm, each components of human sexuality, facilitate oxytocin release. Lactating rats show an attenuated elevation in stress hormone in response to white noise compared to virgins. Infusion of oxytocin in virgin rats also dampens the elevation of stress hormones in response to stress, suggesting that the increased oxytocin released during lactation may be acting to buffer the individual from environmental stressors. Oxytocin also has anxiolytic effects in behavioral assays of anxiety, such as the elevated plus maze. Oxytocin is not known to be directly involved in any psychiatric disorders; however, some interesting correlations have been reported. Autism is a disease characterized by, among other symptoms, deficits in social reciprocity in humans. One study has found that autistic children have decreased levels of plasma oxytocin compared to age-matched control children. Behavioral consequences of intracerebral vasopressin and oxytocin: Focus on learning and memory. In addition to these relatively minor painful experiences, some individuals also will experience acute pain from major trauma, surgery, and invasive medical procedures. Others may even experience persistent pain such as chronic back pain, headaches, or pain secondary to chronic illness such as arthritis. Whenever a person is confronted with a painful situation, there are demands or requirements placed on that individual for certain responses. For example, a child receiving an injection must hold his or her arm still while a needle is inserted into the arm. Individuals spontaneously react in these situations and use various strategies to deal with pain and the demands of the situation. Pacing activity involves taking regular, planned rest breaks to avoid overdoing and experiencing increases in pain. Relaxation involves attempting to decrease physiological arousal by remaining calm and relaxing muscles. Relaxation also is sometimes referred to as a physiological coping strategy, because it may include direct physical benefits. Some coping strategies are effective and facilitate good adjustment, whereas other strategies are ineffective and may promote additional pain and suffering. Although intuitively certain strategies appear effective and others seem ineffective, empirical studies are needed to demonstrate the relationship between coping strategies and adjustment. This is especially important because some strategies are effective in one situation but not the next, or for one person but not another. Cognitive Coping Strategies Mental strategies or ways to use thoughts or imagination to cope with pain are usually called cognitive coping strategies. Distraction involves thinking about other things to divert attention from pain and can be internal, such as imagining a pleasant scene, or external, such as focusing on a specific aspect of the environment. Reinterpreting pain sensations is imagining that the pain is something else, such as numbness or a warm feeling. Calming self-statements refers to statements that one might tell oneself to provide comfort or encouragement. Wishful thinking, praying, or hoping involves telling oneself that the pain will go away some day by faith, an act of God, or something magical. Fear and anger self-statements are statements one might tell oneself that promote fear or anger, such as "I am afraid I am going to die. Cognitive restructuring refers to a process of recognizing negative thoughts and changing them to more realistic and rational thoughts.
The typical onset of anxiety disorders varies allergy treatment pipeline buy generic clarinex 5mg online, with some tending to begin in early childhood allergy treatment on the nhs discount clarinex 5mg mastercard. Causes of Anxiety Disorders Although there are still many unanswered questions about how anxiety disorders begin, a number of contributing factors have been identified. From a biological perspective, there is mounting evidence supporting the role of genetics. Differences have also been shown in patterns of blood flow in the brains of individuals with and without anxiety disorders. Interestingly, these patterns may normalize following treatment, either with medication or with psychological treatment. From a psychological perspective, life experiences appear to play a role in the onset and exacerbation of anxiety disorders. For example, life stress can contribute to the development of Panic Disorder and other anxiety disorders. The key features shared by the anxiety disorders include excessive or unrealistic fear and anxiety, avoidance of feared objects and situations, and excessive attempts to reduce discomfort or to protect oneself from potential threat. In fact, in severe cases, people with anxiety disorders may be unable to work, develop relationships, or even leave their homes. This refers to anxiety about, or avoidance of, situations in which escape might be difficult or help unavailable in the event of a panic attack or paniclike symptoms. Feared situations may include crowded places, travel, driving, enclosed places, and others. For example, individuals with Social Anxiety Disorder tend to be overly concerned that others will judge them in a negative way. Likewise, individuals with Panic Disorder tend to misinterpret normal physical sensations, such as dizziness or breathlessness, as being dangerous. Treatment of Anxiety Disorders Anxiety disorders are among the most treatable of psychological problems. Most individuals who receive appropriate treatment experience a significant reduction in symptoms. For Substance-Induced Anxiety Disorders and Anxiety Disorders Due to a General Medical Condition, the focus is generally on reducing the substance use or on treating the medical condition that is causing the problem. Anxiolytic medications (especially the benzodiazepines, such as alprazolam and diazepam) are also effective for reducing anxiety, although they are usually prescribed with caution due to the potential for abuse and the difficulty that some people have discontinuing these drugs. All of the anxiety disorders, except perhaps specific phobias, have been shown to improve following treatment with medications. First, patients are encouraged to expose themselves to the situations they fear until their fear subsides. For example, individuals with Social Anxiety Disorder may practice meeting new people, engaging in conversations, or purposely making minor mistakes in social situations. Individuals with Panic Disorder are encouraged to expose themselves to the physical feelings they fear. Second, cognitive therapy is often used to help individuals to replace their anxious thoughts with more balanced, realistic perspectives. Individuals with Social Anxiety Disorder may benefit from learning to communicate more effectively. These trainers banded together for the purpose of sharing information about mutual problems. At that time, there were 90 internship programs listed and no postdoctoral programs. The online directory may be updated at any time by training directors, and users may search for programs using a variety of criteria. More in-depth sharing of information also occurs at biannual membership conferences and biannual continuing education programs. Research findings have been made available on such topics as the supply and demand imbalance or balance (Keilin, Thorn, Rodolfa, Constantine, & Kaslow, 2000), the internship matching process (Keilin, 1998, 2000), and the value of formalized postdoctoral training (Logsdon-Conradsen et al. In response to the supply and demand crisis in psychology, which was related in part to the imbalance in the number of intern applicants and internship positions (Dixon & Thorn, 2000; Keilin, 2000; Keilin et al.
Because few people can enjoy their assignments without cordial and effective interactions with others allergy shots dangerous generic 5 mg clarinex amex, programs should give guidance on developing good interpersonal relations with host country nationals allergy watch cheap 5mg clarinex with visa, both in the workplace and during voluntary leisure time. One way of measuring progress toward this goal is that people on overseas assignments should be able to list people with whom they work well, with whom they interact during their leisure time, and whom they can call on in times of need. Good training increases the probability that people in the host country will have positive attitudes about the sojourners in their country. In some cases, people can make a list of friends, but those purported friends might report that the people are insensitive, ethnocentric, and condescending. The third goal is to provide guidance on how participants in training programs can accomplish their goals. Virtually all sojourners have concrete goals in addition to enjoying and personally benefiting from their assignments. Overseas students want to obtain university degrees within a reasonable amount of time; overseas businesspeople want to enter into trade agreements; diplomats want to develop treaties acceptable to all sides in a conflict; technical assistance advisers want to construct sanitation facilities, irrigation systems, or medical centers; cross-cultural researchers want to establish collegial relations so that information can be gathered and shared; and so forth. Training can give people guidance on such topics as working through bureaucracies, negotiating with counterparts, keeping legal requirements in mind, identifying the resources needed for project completion, and so forth. Many times, training must be culturally specific, depending on the types of participants in programs. Foreign students working in the United States need to be prepared for the independence in scholarly inquiry that professors expect. American businesspeople working in Asia need to be more sensitive to the effects of their actions on the collective identity of their hosts (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, Brislin, & Hui, 1988). Diplomats need to be aware of the long history of animosities that various ethnic groups within a country may bring to the bargaining table. The fourth and final goal is to assist program participants to deal with the stress that overseas assignments can bring. All of these feelings are very common, and cross-cultural trainers have adopted such stress-reduction methods as relaxation, cognitive restructuring, development and maintenance of valued leisure time activities, exercise, and the avoidance of health-threatening behaviors. Trainers frequently introduce the concept that program participants should not feel singled out for negative selfjudgments. The feeling that "I am the only one" who is having difficulties adjusting to the other culture is common. If participants learn that most sojourners experience adjustment difficulties and feel the temptation to engage in negative self-thoughts, then the resulting stress is decreased. Given increases in the same factors that lead to the need for effective intercultural communication, such as immigration, global business, the needs of international students, and the demands of various ethnic groups to be heard in the political arena, the future will undoubtedly see even more attention to cross-cultural training programs. To best explain this concept, a problem that can be analyzed with the help of it will first be posed. Emics and etics will then be introduced in their abstract form and subsequently applied to the problem. A group of European consultants recommended that development projects be established to increase water availability and grasslands for the Masai, an East African culture long involved in raising cattle. Instead of leading to healthier herds and better grazing areas, however, the development projects led to starvation for the cattle and eventually for some of the Masai. One is to document valid principles in all cultures and to establish theoretical frameworks useful in comparing human behavior in various cultures (Triandis & Suh, 2002). These frameworks have the goal of being culture general, useful in examining human behavior anywhere in the world. In linguistics, a phonetic system is one that documents and analyzes all meaningful sounds present in all languages and integrates them into a general framework. The other goal of cross-cultural research is to document valid principles of behavior within any one culture, with attention to what the people themselves value as important as well as what is familiar to them. These principles will be part of culture-specific frameworks, useful in examining behavior in one culture but with no claims about generality to other cultures. Such an analysis has to reject the importation and imposition of frameworks from outside a culture since, by definition, a researcher cannot gain insight into emics by using foreign tools; the tools must be indigenous (Kim & Berry, 1993).
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